All human beings today belong to the Homo sapiens species, and it is widely accepted amongst researchers, historians, and scientists, that all of human history began on the continent of Africa. The exact location in Africa is a topic of constant debate as remains have been found in various locations throughout the continent, such as Ethiopia, Kenya, and Morocco, though researchers suggest it was most likely in the Horn of Africa. The oldest known remains of our species to date has been found in Jebel Irhoud, Morocco and dated about 315,000 years ago.

Early modern humans expanded to Western Eurasia and Central, Western and Southern Africa from the time of their emergence. Evidence of migration out of Africa, via a partial skull, was discovered in the Apidima Cave in southern Greece and is dated more than 210,000 years old. There were several waves of migrations, many via northern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula about 130,000 YA (Years Ago), though most of these early waves appear to have mostly died out or retreated by 80,000 YA.

Mitochondrial Eve (the name alludes to the biblical Eve) is the matrilineal most recent common ancestor of all living humans. In other words, she is defined as the most recent woman from whom all living humans descend in an unbroken line purely through their mothers and through the mothers of those mothers, back until all lines converge on one woman. In 1987, geneticists compared the mitochondrial DNA (genetic information passed from mothers to their offspring) of people from different populations around the world and find that they all link in an unbroken line to Mitochondrial Eve. This does not mean that she was the first woman, nor the only living female of her time, nor the first member of a "new species." It only means that she is the most recent female ancestor to which all living humans are linked. She was believed to have lived in either East Africa or Botswana.

The earliest Egyptians were indigenous Africans who were drawn to the Sahara when it was a humid region rich in grasslands and with plentiful water. There was a widespread Saharan Neolithic culture. However, during this same period (c. 10,000 - c. 6,000 BC), the Earth's axis tilted, causing the Saharan climate to slowly transform from humid to arid, prompting Saharan Africans to migrate to the Nile Valley to take advantage of its fertile floodplains.

King Menes began the first of three successive Egyptian empires. This lasted two thousand years, with many Pharoahs, like Khafra of the Fourth Dynasty, of a strongly Black cast of countenance. At the end of the period the empire fell apart into Egyptian and Ethiopian halves and a silence of three centuries ensued. "The great Sphinx at Gizeh, so familiar to all the world, the Sphinxes of Tanis, the statue from the Fayum, the statue of the Esquiline at Rome, and the Colossi of Bubastis all represent Blacks, and are described by William Flinders Petrie, an expert in the field of Egyptology, as 'having high cheek bones, flat cheeks, both in one plane, a massive nose, firm projecting lips, and thick hair, with an austere and almost savage expression of power.'

Imhotep, a learned Black physician, the earliest known physician and history's earliest known scientific genius, lived in Egypt. In the course of time, he was deified and became, for later generations, the special god of medicine.

Usertesen III (also known as Senusrat III) drove back the Black tribes of the Upper Nile Valley and attempted to confine them to the edge of the Nubian Desert above the Second Cataract. Hemmed in here, they set up the state of Napata. Less than one hundred years later an African from the south, Ra Nehesi, was seated on the throne of the pharaohs and was called "the King's eldest son." This may mean that an incursion from the far south had placed a Black conqueror on the throne. The whole empire was in some way shaken, and two hundred years later the invasion of the Hyksos began. The domination of Hyksos kings, who may have been Blacks from Asia, lasted for 500 years.

Using an estimated 2.3 million large stone blocks weighing an average of 2.5 tons each, the Great Pyramid of Giza is built by the Egyptian labor force over the course of roughly 27 years (Khufu's entire reign). Initially standing at 481 ft tall, it took an estimated 5.5 million tons of limestone, 8,000 tons of granite, and 500,000 tons of mortar to build. This showcase of ancient Egypt's advanced mathematics and engineering skills have made this structure one of the most famous in the world, and the only one of the seven wonders of the ancient World to remain largely intact.

Aahmes defeated the Hyksos and founded a new empire, the Eighteenth Dynasty, which lasted about 1,500 years. Black Nefertari, cofounder of the Eighteenth Dynasty, was his queen; styled the wife of the god Ammon, many monuments were erected in her honor. Nefertari was known for her beauty, strong personality, and unusual administrative skills. For many years Nefertari was joint ruler with her son, Amenhotep I, who succeeded his father. Nearly 300 years later (c. 1420 BC) one of Nefertari's descendants, Thothmes IV, married Black Queen Mutemua, whose son was the celebrated Amenhotep III (reigned c. 1400 BC), the builder of the great temple of Ammon at Luxor and the Colossi at Memnon. According to some authorities, Nefertari was the grandmother of Thothmes I (Thutmose I, c. 1525 BC - 1508 BC) and the great-grandmother of Hathshepsut and Thothmes III (Thutmose III) -- two of the greatest sovereigns that ever sat on an Egyptian throne. Thutmose III fought seventeen campaigns in twenty years.

Hathshepsut reigned conjointly with her half-brother Thuthmosis II for two or three years. After the death of Thuthmosis II, Hathshepsut assumed full power as ruler of Egypt. She completed the temple of Deir el Bahari (Sublime of the Sublime) one of the most dramatically situated in the world. It was designated, some say, by Thuthmosis II, and others, her favorite architect, Senenmut. A tree-lined avenue of sphinxes led up to the temple and ramps led from terrace to terrace. Reliefs on the south side of the middle terrace show the queen's expedition by way of the Red Sea to Punt. Throughout the temple there are statues of the queen. The king and queen of Punt are represented as of the Khoikhoi people.

King Tut's fraternal grandfather, Thutmose IV (1425 BC - 1412 BC), the successor of Amenhotep II, it is believed married a Black woman, Mutemua. Amenhotep III, whom King Tut stated was his father, was apparently Black.

Early legendary history declared that a queen, Maqueda, or Nikaula of Sheba, a state of Central Abyssinia, visited Solomon in 1050 BC and had her son, Menelik, educated in Jerusalem. This was the supposed beginning of the Auxmite kingdom, whose capital, Axume, was a flourishing center of trade.

When Black Egyptian pharaoh Shesheng (or Shoshenq) I, the Libyan, seized the throne of the pharaohs in the tenth century BC, the Egyptian legitimate dynasty went to Napata as king priests and established a theocratic monarchy. Gathering strength, the Ethiopian kingdom under this dynasty expanded north around 750 BC and for a century ruled all of Egypt. During the early Napata period there were twenty-six Black kings. The first king was Piankhy (Piankhi) and some of his successors were Kashta the Kushite, Shabaka, Tarharqa (Taharka), and Tanutamen. Napata was an administrative center and became the first capital of Kush.

Kushite king Piye (also known as Piankhi or Piankhy) reigned. He inherited from his father, Kashta, dominion over Egypt as far northward as Thebes, perhaps 200 or 300 miles farther, and he served as governor or viceroy over Egypt under the Ethiopian crown before the conquest.

Piankhy (Piye) was informed by courier that a Libyan prince from the Delta was marching south. Piankhy waited for the Libyan to get as far as possible from his base. When he reached Hermophlis, 400 miles south of the Mediterranean, Piankhy started the attack, assembling an army at Napata, and ordered them to march northward to Thebes. Finally, he joined his armies, swept through Egypt, and received the submission of sixteen princes.

King Piankhy (Piye) died, having completed the conquest of Egypt, and ruled over a land that stretched from the shores of the Mediterranean to the borders of modern Ethiopia -- almost a quarter of the African continent.

Pharaoh Necho of Egypt sent out the Phoenician expedition that circumnavigated Africa.

Reign of "the greatest of the Ethiopian kings," Taharqa (Taharka). His reign, with all its wars, was an era of prosperity and cultural advancement. It has been said that he, with four other kings, led expeditions as far as the Straits of Gibraltar. Famed British archaeologist Randall-MacIver stated "It seems amazing that an African Negro should have been able, with any sort of justification, to style himself Emperor of the World." Taharka died in 663 BC and was succeeded by his nephew Tanwetamani, during whose reign the Assyrians drove the Kushites out of Egypt.

Rise of the Kushite kingdom of Meroe, a busy iron-working center on the Middle Nile in the northern part of the modern Republic of Sudan. Sabaeans from southern Arabia settled in northern Ethiopia and with the local peoples began to build a new culture that was to be the parent culture of Axum. The gradual replacement of stone by iron for essential weapons and tools began. By c. 200 BC the metal founders of Meroe had built a major industry in iron. But the actual setting up of iron-extractive and forging industries south of the Sahara seems not to have occurred until soon after 300 BC. The existence of an iron-using industry over a fairly wide area of the Niger and Benue rivers (in north central Nigeria) has been validated by archaeological evidence.

Alexander the Great conquered Egypt. He had Blacks in his armies; one of the most illustrious was Clitus, whom he made King of Bactria and commander of his cavalry. Clitus's mother, Dropsica, was Alexander's nurse, and Clitus is mentioned by Plutarch and others as Clitus Niger, that is, Clitus the Negro.

Nastasen, successor of Horsiatef, moved the capital from Napata to Meroe although Napata continued to be the religious capital and the Ethiopian kings were still crowned on its gold throne.

The greatest period of the Kushite kingdom. It was during this time that the pyramids were filled with the finest objects and many great monuments were built. Trade with other countries was at its height.

Ergamenes united the kingdoms of Ethiopia. He was strongly influenced by Greek culture which from the fifth to the second century BC penetrated Africa from the east. At the same time he began to employ Ethiopian speech in writing and used a new Ethiopian alphabet.

The skills of metal-working began to be understood and practiced, perhaps beginning with copper in the regions of modern Katanga and northern Zambia. They soon began working in iron. Population was small. There is evidence of early farming and cultivation of millet. Sailors from Egypt and Arabia visited the East Coast of Africa for trade, buying African ivory, tortoise shell, and other products. There were African sultans in Bengal before the Portuguese arrived, at which time Africans were already living near Madras. Janjira, a state south of Bombay, is of African origin. Kush was still rich and powerful. Axum, in northern Ethiopia, became the center of a trading kingdom that developed rapidly. Its main port, Adulis, was visited by ships from Egypt and India.

The Roman Emperor Nero planned to invade Ethiopia and sent some scouts to report. They penetrated as far as the region of the Sadd.

Pope Victor I, an African, unified the church by fixing the present date for Easter and making Latin the official language. Victor was the first of three African popes in the early Catholic Church.

Kingdom of Awkar emerged under a chief named Gana.

Melchiades, an African, was elected Pope, and remained so until his death in January, 314 CE.

Axum completed the destruction of the Kingdom of Kush (Meroe). King Ezana of Axum accepted Christianity. The Axumite port of Adulis continued as an important center for the western trade of the Indian Ocean.

Gelasius I, born in Rome of African parents, was elected pope, then died four years after his election. A writer of letters, books, and hymns, he taught the presence of Christ in the sacrament, and the supremacy of the pope over all the churches.

Prophet Muhammad journeyed with three companions from Mecca to Medina. From this journey, or hegira, the world religion of Islam was introduced by its soldiers, teachers, and merchants all the way across North Africa, southwestern Europe, and in the east as far as Malaysia and China.

The Arabs invaded African Egypt under commander Amr-ibn-el-Asr, taking it from the Eastern Roman Emperors and securing as allies the native Black Egyptians, now called Copts, and using Sudanese Blacks, Persians, and Turks in their armies. They came in partly as friends of Egyptians against the tyranny of the Eastern Roman Empire, partly even as defenders of the heretical Coptic Church. It must be remembered that they were related by blood and history to these Black people. Nubians from the Sudan took frequent part in these wars. The mediterranean port of Alexandria surrendered in 641.

The African kingdom of the Songhay (Songhai), with its capital at Gao, had a dynasty called the Dia, or Za, which remained in power on the western Niger from 690 to 1335. The known history of Songhay covers 1,000 years and three dynasties, and centered in the great bend of the Niger.

There is an expansion of Indian Ocean trade as Muslim Arabs establish trading stations in Northwest India, Ceylon, Southeast Asia, Southern China, and East Africa.

Early Iron Age peoples of the Bantu language family settled in small villages in many parts of East and Central Africa.

Groups south of the Zambezi region began to move southwards across the Limpopo River. They carried the Iron Age into South Africa and initiated an agricultural revolution using their own iron implements for the systematic cultivation of crops. With this dispersal came the development of many different Bantu languages.

Early origins along the East Coast of Swahili culture, and of the Swahili language, a Bantu language influenced by Arabic and other African languages. There is also a development of trade and more permanent settlements along the coast, including that of Unguja Ukuu in Zanzibar.

The Moorish conquest of the Visigothic Kingdom in Spain under the leadership of Tarik at the battle of Guadalete. Arabs split their forces into two columns. One of them crossed the Strait of Gibraltar to invade Spain. The other traveled southward, following the caravan routes across the Sahara to seek the source of Sudanese gold.

Abd al-Rahman I, a Prince of Umayyads, arrived in Spain and after thirty years of fighting, founded an independent government. In the tenth century, it became the Caliphate of Cordova. His power was passed to the Black Sarakolles with whom Semites had amalgamated. Abd al-Rahman I's full name is: Abd al-Rahman ibn Mu'awiya ibn Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan.

The Sefawa (aka Sayfawa, Sefuwa, or Sefouwa) dynasty is founded. The Kingdom of Kanem emerges shortly after, near Lake Chad. The Sefawa dynasty are the Muslim kings of the Kanem-Bornu Empire.

The Annals of Ireland record the landing of enslaved Blacks ('blue men' they are called in both Irish and Norse) by Vikings returning from raids on Spain and North Africa. In 869 CE, the Persian adventurer, Al Kabith, summoned the enslaved Blacks to revolt, and they flocked to his side in the tens of thousands. In 871 they captured Basra (located in Iraq) and for fourteen years dominated the Euphrates delta.

Muhammad ibn Tughj al-Ikhshid ruled Egypt as governor. He was succeeded by a Black Abyssinian eunuch, Abu-l-Misk Kafur. Kafur ruled Egypt for twenty-two years from 946 to 968. He conquered Damascus and Aleppo and incorporated Syria under Egyptian rule. He died in 968.

From the founding of Kilwa until its capture by the Portuguese in the fifteenth century, forty sovereigns ruled there. Kilwa eventually became the most important commercial port on the East African coast.

A sultanate, with its seat of government at Kilwa between Cape Delgado and the Island of Mafia, was founded by Ali ibn al-Hassan Shirazi, a Persian prince. It had as vassals the sultans of Sofala, Angoshe, Mozambique, Zanzibar, Pemba, Mombaz or Mombasa, Melinde or Malindi, Kismayu, and Magadoo (Benadir). These diverse Arab and Persian sultans were not, properly speaking, governors of states. Their authority was exercised only over Mussulman colonies of Asiatic origin established around their respective residences and over the Africans living in the proximity of these residences. Their principal occupation was to recruit slaves from African chiefs, with whom they conspired. Slaves were procured by means of raids and sold to them. They in turn sent the slaves to the ports of the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf or resold them to Portuguese slave traders. Slave trading constituted almost the only commerce and the only excuse for the Mussulman settlements of East Africa and was the source of their prosperity.

Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar, the son of the Caliph Almanzor, fought a battle near Ceuta, in North Africa, against Ziri, the Berber. The combat was waged from dawn to sunset and Muzaffar was on the verge of defeat. An African whose brother had been put to death by Ziri's command avenged himself by wounding Ziri three times and then retreated to the Spanish lines. At first the African's story was not believed because the banner of the Berbers still floated aloft. Finally, Muzaffar was convinced and ordered an attack that put the Berbers to flight. Three years later Ziri died when his wounds were reopened.

The ruling Persian prince from Shiraz, Ali ibn al-Hassan Shirazi, arrived and made numerous treaties with African rulers along the coast. There were many trading settlements on the East Coast. Central African ivory and gold trade with the East Coast was already in existence. There were also imports of Indian cottons, beads, and other goods.

Along the southern bank of the Limpopo, Shona peoples established themselves and built a series of Iron Age settlements which were further developed by new groups from north of the Limpopo in later centuries. They worked finely in cast and beaten gold, produced hand-turned pottery, and traded their products for Indian cottons and other Indian Ocean imports. They buried their kings with a wealth of gold ornament. Around the year 1600 they were displaced by another set of rulers from across the Limpopo, relatives of the Karanga called the Venda, who remained until the early nineteenth century.

Ancestors of the Yoruba crossed the Niger river from the northeast and established the village of Ile Ife.

The sixteenth king of the Songhai, Za Kusay, was converted to Islam; since then all Songhai princes have been Muslim.

Nedjeh, a former enslaved Black man, and his descendants ruled Arabia.

Zahir ruled Egypt; his wife was a Black Sudanese woman. After the death of her husband, she largely influenced the rule of her son who came to the throne in 1036 and ruled until 1094, the longest reign in the dynasty. This son, M'add, took the name of Mustansir and is regarded as the best and ablest of the rulers of his time. He loved and encouraged learning and had a library of 120,000 books. The "Black Dowager," who had great influence over him, sailed the Nile in her silver barge and imported additional Black troops from the south, until Mustansir had in his escort 50,000 Black soldiers and swordsmen, 20,000 Berbers, 10,000 Turks, and 30,000 enslaved whites. For years all Upper Egypt was held by Black regiments.

Kasim Ibn Hammud, joined by his faithful Africans, in February took advantage of his nephew Yahya's absence in Malaga to enter the city. In September, the Cordovans again expelled his forces, but with his African troops he beseiged them and cut off their supply of food. In October, the Cordovans, in a concentrated force, put the beseigers to flight, but the Africans made a desperate resistance and only surrendered once Kasim had fled. Kasim was later captured by Xeres. Yahya Ibn Hammud was impressed by the loyalty of the Africans to his uncle, so he employed them to garrison Carmona, a city he had captured from the cadi of Seville (a cadi is a minor Moslem magistrate or judge).

Ismail, the son of the cadi, lured Yahya Ibn Hammud from his secure position within the city walls and slew him in battle. Nevertheless, the Africans who held the city gates and walls would not surrender to Ismail or Ibn Abdallah, the former ruler of Carmona, and they were nearly annihilated by their foes. At Algeciras, African soldiers played the role of king-makers and proclaimed Mohammed, a cousin of Yahya, caliph (the chief Muslim civil and religious ruler), but this venture was unsuccessful.

Muslim Almoravid movement developed on an island in the Senegal river.

Zuhair, of Almeria, was unpopular among his subjects because he was a so-called Slav prince--that is, a descendant of Northern mercenaries, such as the mamelukes of more recent times. Ibn Abbas, his vizier, convinced him to make an expedition into Granadan territory. In August he found himself surrounded. His Slav cavalry fled when their leader, Hudhail, was dismounted, and his Andalusian troops were dispirited and useless. His 500 African infantry seized the armory and went over to the enemy. It is possible that their desertion was prearranged, for Badis, king of Granada, was devoid of religious and racial prejudice and had a Jew, Samuel Ibn Nagdela, for vizier, and an African, Kodam, as provost marshall.

A movement arose among portions of the Lemtuna people, who inhabited principally the Tagant and the district of Howdaghost, and also Goddala or Jeddala. They led a nomadic life between the Mauritanian Adrar and the Atlantic. A federation was formed from a monastery situated on an island of the lower Senegal, the famous sect of the Almoravides. They set out to preach Islam and to wage war from the Sudan to Spain.

Idris II, the leader of Malaga, had soldiers in his fortress that decided to support his cousin Mohammed. The people of Malaga wanted to fight, but Idris said it was too hard to win and he didn't want more violence. Days later, Badis of Granada took over Malaga and kept the African soldiers there. The Black soldiers were loyal to Badis, but the Arab people in Malaga didn't like him because he was a Berber. They worked with Mutadid of Seville, who sent his son Al Mutamid to help them. However, Al Mutamid was slow to act, and Badis was able to send more troops and defeat him.

The king of Manding, was converted to Islam by an Almoravid. He made a pilgrimage to Mecca and began to enter into relations with the neighboring states which were favorable to the growth of his power and to the development of his country. He also ceased considering himself a vassal of the Empire of Ghana. Until then, it was principally the Bambuk who furnished the gold that enriched Ghana. They undertook an active and continual exchange of the products between the Sudan and North Africa. After the Almoravides learned the road to Manding and taught it to the Moroccan caravans, the Boure became the principal source of production for gold. This contributed substantially to enriching the King of Manding and opened up new horizons for its people.

The Mossi State was founded by Ouedraogo, who was a warrior-king of the Mossi people. The Mossi State was a powerful kingdom that existed in West Africa from the 11th century to the 19th century, in what is now Burkina Faso. The Mossi people were skilled farmers and fierce warriors who were able to establish a strong centralized state with a complex system of government and a well-organized army. Ouedraogo is credited with establishing the first Mossi kingdom and laying the foundations for the political and cultural traditions that would shape the Mossi State for centuries to come.

The mansa, or king of Manding, was converted to Islam by an Almoravid. He made a pilgrimage to Mecca and began to enter into relations with the neighboring states which were favorable to the growth of his power and to the development of his country. He also ceased considering himself a vassal of the Empire of Ghana. Until then it was principally the Bambuk who furnished the gold dust for the commerce which enriched Ghana. They undertook an active and continual exchange of the products between the Sudan and North Africa. After the Almoravides learned the road to Manding and taught it to the Moroccan caravans, the Boure became the principal source of production for gold. This contributed substantially to filling the treasury of the King of Manding and opened up new horizons for its people.

Howdaghost (Ghana's most important market), though the capital of a Berber kingdom, was attacked, taken, and pillaged by Abdallah ben Yassine, under the pretext that the town paid tribute to the King of Ghana.

Howdaghost (Ghana's most important market), though the capital of a Berber kingdom, was attacked, taken, and pillaged by Abdallah ben Yassine, under the pretext that the town paid tribute to the King of Ghana.

The Almoravides captured the old Sudanese city of Kumbi and put to the sword all the inhabitants who would not embrace Islam.

Yusuf Ibn Tashfin, the leader of the Almoravides, fought and won a battle with Alfonso VI of Castille, at Zallaka. Alfonso was hemmed in on both sides, but resisted stubbornly. At a crucial moment Yusuf ordered his Black guards, whom he had held in reserve, to charge. They did terrible damage; one of them cut his way through to Alfonso and wounded him in the thigh with a dagger. This fight won the victory and Alfonso could only save a small remnant of his forces. In Moslem Spain cooperation between Arabs and Berbers or Arabs of different tribes was impossible except in the face of a common danger. Jews and Blacks were given opportunities to serve the state because they were neutral regarding the feuds between Arab and Berber, and because they had no connection with tribes, they had more personal loyalties. It was an age of each for himself and there are instances of Blacks looking out for their own advantage regardless of the side for which they fought. On the whole, though, in that age of treachery and low standards the Black soldier was unusually grateful and faithful to those who used him well. His physical courage was never called in question.

A number of tiny Malinke Kingdoms in Ghana that were located around the upper Niger River were united to become the Mali Empire. In the 1300s and 1400s, Arab historians compiled the majority of the information that exists on the early history of the Empire of Mali. The Susu Kingdom, which had subdued the Malinké populace in the early 13th century, was controlled by a monarch by the name of Sumanguru Kanté. Many historians, like Conrad David and Innes Gordon, believe Sundiata to have formed Mali when he overcame Sumanguru Kanté in 1235. Sundiata, also known as Sunjata, organized the Malinké rebellion against the Susu Kingdom. The empire's growth started in Niani, which also happened to be the city where King Sundiata, the empire's monarch, was born. From the Atlantic Coast south of the Senegal River to Goa on the eastern side of the Middle Niger bend, Sundiata established a large kingdom.

From 1312 CE to 1337 CE, Mansa Musa (also known as Musa I of Mali) presided over the Mali kingdom. Mansa Musa was among the wealthiest people in the world and Mali was one of the wealthiest countries in Africa during his rule. A portion of what is now Mali, Senegal, the Gambia, Guinea, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, Mauritania, and Burkina Faso once belonged to the ancient Mali kingdom. Mansa Musa transformed towns like Gao and Timbuktu into significant cultural hubs. In order to create new structures for his settlements, he also imported architects from the Middle East and other parts of Africa. Mali's kingdom was transformed by Mansa Musa into an advanced Islamic hub of study. Following the disappearance of the previous monarch, Abu Bakr II, at sea in 1312 CE, Mansa Musa assumed the throne. In order to explore the Atlantic Ocean, Mansa Abu Bakr II had left on a big fleet of ships, but he never came back. Mali became the richest kingdom in Africa during Mansa Musa's leadership despite inheriting an already prosperous kingdom. His wealth stemmed from the Mali kingdom's large salt and gold reserves. Another significant source of wealth was ivory from elephants.

Gongo-Mussa made a pilgrimage to Mecca with a caravan of 60,000 persons, including 12,000 young slaves gowned in figured cotton and Persian silk; 500 slaves with golden staffs. Mussa brought to Egypt no less than eight camel loads of tibar (gold dust), each weighing 300 pounds, to defray his expenses. He brought back with him an Arab, al-Kati, who initiated a new style of architecture. While Gongo-Mussa was away, Timbuktu was sacked by Mossi; he rebuilt the city and filled the new mosque with learned Blacks from the University of Fez. On his way to Mecca, Gongo-Mussa passed by Tuat and Cairo; his caravan aroused interest and curiosity everywhere along the route.

The troops of the Mandingo Emperor Gongo-Mussa captured Gao and the Songhay became vassals of the Mandingo.

Two hundred Moors arrived to assist the king of Granada as soldiers.

The Mohro-naba of the Yatenga attacked Timbuktu and sacked the city.

The Mossi crossed the valley, plundered Timbuktu, and separated Jenne, the original seat of the Songhay, from the main empire.

Kongo dynasty established.

The Chwezi established a kingdom called Bunyoro-Kitara. Much of Southern Uganda was ruled by Chwezi Dynasty, with new methods of central government. Kimera, a Bito, ascended the throne. The Bito line of kings ruled for eighteen generations.

The Bulala group forced Sefawa into exile and he established a new political base at Bornu on the west shore of Lake Chad.

Portuguese exploration of Africa promoted by Henry the Navigator.

Mutota, King of the Karanga, organized a vast and victorious campaign of conquest designed to extend his rule over the whole inland plateau between the Zambezi and the Limpopo--the main gold-bearing area--and afterwards through Mozambique to the harbors of the East Coast trade. All this was substantially achieved by Mutota and his son Matope, so that Matope became the most powerful sovereign in the central-southern continent during the 1470s and was honored as such by the rulers and chiefs of the East Coast ports. They called his empire Wilayatu '1 Mu 'anamutapah after his indigenous title of Mwanamutapa, or lord of the plundered lands. The Portuguese corrupted it to Monomotapa.

The Tuareg chief Akil succeeded in driving the Mandingo garrison from Timbuktu and in making himself master of the city.

When the European colonial powers of Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands forcefully abducted families in Africa to perform the arduous labor required to fuel the New World's economic engine in the 15th century, the slave trade in the Americas officially began. Slavery has existed in Portugal since before the nation's founding. Residents of the current Portuguese territory were frequently forced into slavery before independence and also forced others into slavery. Portugal was a major player in the Atlantic slave trade, which involved the vast trafficking and shipping of the enslaved from Africa and other areas of the world to the American continent, throughout the Kingdom of Portugal's period of rule after its independence. The Marquis de Pombal forbade the import of the enslaved into European Portugal in 1761. However, slavery was only outlawed in the African Portuguese possessions in 1869. When Portuguese traders delivered the first sizable quantity of enslaved Africans to Europe in 1444 A.D., the Atlantic slave trade officially got underway.

The Portuguese ships of Henry the Navigator arrived in Senegal.

Sonni Ali, called the Great, ascended the throne--the last and greatest of seventeen Songhay kings.

Sonni Ali captured Timbuktu from the Tuareg.